Appendix B Control tips for species that commonly cause nuisances. (2024)

[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

Appendix B includes suggestions for the use of tools and techniquesthat are scientifically appropriate for each species. Legal restrictionsvary, so please check your state and local regulations before attemptingcontrol.

MAMMALS

* Bats (little brown, big brown, Mexican free-tailed)

* Chipmunk, Eastern

* Coyote, Eastern

* Foxes (red and gray)

* Mice (house, deer, white-footed)

* Moles (hairy-tailed, star-nosed, Eastern)

* Opossum

* Rabbit, Eastern cottontail

* Raccoon

* Rat, Norway

* Skunks (striped, spotted)

* Squirrels, tree (gray, red, fox, northern flying, southernflying)

* Voles (meadow, pine, prairie)

* Woodchuck or Groundhog

REPTILES

* Snakes (common garter, eastern milk, black rat, and northernwater, with some information about other common species)

BIRDS

* Pigeon

* Starling, European

BATS

Species' names

* Little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus

* Big brown bat, Eptesicus fuscus

* Mexican free-tailed bat, Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana

Little brown and big brown bats commonly roost in buildings in theNortheast. Farther south, Mexican free-tailed bats may also be found instructures.

Size

Little brown: 3-4 inches long, 1/16-1/2 ounce, 9-inch wingspan

Big brown: 4-5 inches long, 3/8-5/8 ounce, 12-inch wingspan

Mexican free-tailed: 3-4 inches long, 1/2 ounce, 11-13-inchwingspan

The Indiana bat, Myotis sodalis, an endangered species found insome parts of our region, can be confused for the little brown bat.Remember, an endangered species cannot be harassed, collected, harmed,or killed without a federal permit. Of course, an Indiana bat is notlikely to be found in a house. It's not easy to tell them apart,but here's how:

Little brown bat Indiana batBrownish nose Pink noseLong hairs on toes, hairs Short, unremarkablestick out beyond end toe hairsof toesCalcar * usually lacks keel, Calcar has prominentor has only a weak keel Keel* The calcar is the bone that juts back from the anklebone tosupport the tail membrane. It's "keeled" if there's a flat ridgeof skin sticking off its side that looks like the keel of a boat.Some people consider this the most reliable feature foridentification.

Signs of Their Presence

* At dawn or dusk, you may see bats entering or leaving thebuilding. This is easiest to see outdoors at dusk because bats swarm andfly around the entrance hole a few times before leaving the site.

* Sounds: Bats can see, but they use ultrasonic pulses to guidetheir flight and locate insects (called "echolocation").Roosting bats may squeak or scurry when disturbed.

* Scat: Piles of black, dry, guano usually found under the mainexit hole in the attic. Can be found scattered throughout an area,particularly in roosts where bats enter and fly about, but also checkspecific areas where they roost, such as a wall void or the intersectionof the beams and rafters. You may also see scat on the side of thehouse, usually below a hole or crack. Large piles of guano are usuallyfound beneath areas that are used often or by large numbers of bats.Individual droppings for the little brown bat are about the size of agrain of rice. The scat of the big brown is about twice that size, andtypically chunkier, due to the types of insects they eat, such asbeetles. Bat droppings look like mouse droppings, but mouse scatisn't found in large piles, and is also a little smaller. Also, batdroppings will crumble into powdery dust, but mouse droppingswon't. You may see pieces of insect wings, or their reflections, inbat scat.

* Crystallized urine: When bats have been present in a structurefor quite some time, crystallized urine may coat the beams or wallsbelow their roost. Large colonies may develop urine"stalactites" or "stalagmites" below their primaryroosting area.

* Rub marks along the edges of exit holes: Slight browndiscoloration that's a mix of body oils and dirt.

* Roosts: During the summer, they'll use different roostsduring the day and night. The daytime roost is usually in an attic,barn, garage, soffit, cave, underneath shutters or roof shingles, inwall voids, or behind siding or chimneys. At night, they'll rest ina breezeway, under an awning, or in a garage or similar areas. In thewinter, both species hibernate in colonies in caves, mines, and deeprock crevices. Big brown bats are more likely to hibernate in buildings,often in the attic or in wall voids.

Diet

Entirely insects. A colony of 100 little brown bats can eathundreds of thousands of insects each summer. They eat many insects thatdamage crops and ornamental plants, such as moths and flies.

Typical Activity Patterns

Social style: Females of these species are colonial, while themales are usually solitary or found in small bachelor groups. Femalesroost together to raise their young. Pregnant females look for a warmnook within the roost that will serve as an incubator. These maternitycolonies are often found in attics, soffits, wall voids, behind chimneysor shutters, in barns and tree cavities.

Daily activity: Nocturnal, with peak feeding at dusk and dawn(crepuscular). After feeding in the early morning, they'll returnto the daytime roost and hang out, in a slightly dormant state. Aftertheir evening feeding, they'll usually rest. Females return to theroost often to nurse their young.

Hibernator? Bats hibernate in colonies in caves, mines, and deeprock crevices. Big browns will also hibernate in buildings. Their bodytemperature drops to within several degrees of the "roomtemperature." Big brown bats can tolerate below-freezingtemperatures for short periods, which is why they are often foundroosting in buildings. Their heart rates also drop dramatically. Thelittle brown's heart rate will fall below 20 beats/minute and thebig brown's to 42-62 beats/minute. Compare that to their heartrates during the rest of the year: 250-450 beats/minute for bats whenthey're resting, 800+ beats/minute when they're flying.

Migrates? Both species will migrate locally. Their hibernacula areusually within several hundred miles of their summer roost, but some bigbrown bats will hibernate in their summer roost. Some of the otherspecies of bats found in our region may migrate far to the south.

Where Found

Distribution: Big and little brown bats throughout the East.Mexican free-tailed bats are found in the western, central, andsoutheastern United States.

Habitat: Forests and forest edges, areas with lakes and ponds,parks, orchards, fields, suburbs, cities.

Territory and home range: The maternity colonies begin to disbandshortly after the young are capable of flying, typically in late July.Depending on the weather, females will remain together through lateSeptember. From late July through early September, bats actively explorenew roosts and often show up in locations where they weren't seenearlier in the year. During the summer, there are significant and as yetunexplained fluctuations in the population of maternity colonies.

Breeding Habits

Pair bonding style: Polygamous. Females raise young by themselves,although they share the roost with other females and their young.

Breeding dates: Bats have an unusual habit. They mate during thefall, but the females store the sperm in their bodies for months.Fertilization doesn't take place until the late winter or earlyspring, when the bats emerge from hibernation or return from the south.Gestation: 50-60 days.

Birthing period: Late May through early July (births are typicallystaggered over a 2-3 week period).

Litter size: Little brown: 1 pup; big brown: 2 pups; Mexicanfree-tailed: 1 pup.

Weaning dates: Young begin flying at 3-4 weeks old. In late July,they begin to leave the roost with their mothers.

Amount of time young remain with parents beyond weaning date: Notwell studied yet. Some scientists believe that the young probably followtheir mothers back to the hibernacula. Some of the young probably returnto the roost in which they were born.

Common Nuisance Situations

Time of year: Peaks from the third week of July through the firstweek of August, although there may be calls any time of year.

What are they doing?

* Females may roost in colonies in buildings to raise their young.Their scat and urine can damage insulation and household goods andattract other pests.

* Sometimes a lone bat enters the house and flies around. Thisusually happens in July and August, when the young are learning to fly.

* During an extreme heat wave, several bats may enter the livingquarters, seeking a cooler roost. This is when they'll show up inplaces they normally don't use.

* Big brown bats will hibernate in buildings (little brownsdon't seem to do this in the North, although they do in the South).In the winter, a big brown bat may leave its roost in the attic and flyaround in the living spaces. This usually happens when the temperatureof the attic roost changes dramatically, disturbing theirhibernation--during a thaw, or during the very coldest part of thewinter, if the attic is much colder than the rest of the house.

* Disease risks: Rabies, histoplasmosis (bats don't carry ortransmit histoplasmosis, but their guano promotes the growth of the moldspores that cause the disease). Bats are a rabies vector species.Silver-haired bats (Lasionycteris noctivagans), which aren't foundin buildings, are often associated with human rabies cases. How theperson came into contact with the silver-haired bat often remains amystery.

Debunking Myths about Bats

* There's an epidemic of rabies in bats. Wrong. The incidenceof rabies in bats is very low and outbreaks in colonies appear to berare. Each year, the CDC collects data on rabies cases from eachstate's Health department and publishes a report. In 2004 (the mostcurrent data available), bats accounted for approximately 20% of all ofthe cases of rabid animals in the U.S., following raccoons (38%) andskunks (27%). But that number doesn't tell you how many batsactually had rabies because the sample is not representative. Only sickor otherwise rabies-suspect bats are tested. To determine the trueincidence of a virus, a representative sample of the overall population,including healthy individuals, must be tested. So what's the chancethat a particular bat has rabies? Let's take New York State as anexample. Of the states, it reported the third-highest number of cases inbats (118) in 2004. The NYS Department of Health has been tracking thenumber of rabid bats since 1965. The total has remained remarkablyconstant at 3-5% of the sick bats that were tested. Yet the truestatewide incidence is estimated at less than 1% of the bat population,adjusting for the sampling bias mentioned above.

* If one bat in a colony is rabid, they're all sick. Wrongagain.

* Not all grounded bats are sick! Young pups sometimes becomegrounded when they're learning to fly.

* Overwhelming fear of contracting rabies from a bat. This is atricky one. Although your chances of being exposed to a rabid bat arevery low, it is true that most Americans who died from rabies in thepast decade did have the bat strain. There are probably severalexplanations. Most people notice if they've tangled with a skunk,raccoon, or fox. Also, most people go right to the doctor if they thinkthey've been potentially exposed to rabies, so they receivetreatment and they don't die. But many people encounter bats atnight, while they're drowsy and not thinking clearly, or even whilethey're sleeping. They may not realize they were scratched orbitten, or may not remember the encounter by the time they wake. So theysee no reason to go to the doctor. Unfortunately, that means that ifthey did get infected with the virus, it may not be detected in time forsuccessful treatment. The bottom line: even though infection isunlikely, this is a fatal disease, so don't take chances. However,if someone's so terrified that it's causing problems, try tohelp that person understand this risk more clearly.

* Bats almost never attack people (they will bite in self-defense).

* Bats are not hair stylists. They don't aim for aperson's hair. Bats are excellent fliers. They may swoop close to aperson's face, but if you don't thrash about, they won'tfly into you.

* Bats in the United States don't suck blood. The bats thatlive in our region all eat insects. The vampire bats found in thetropics and subtropics do feed on blood--from livestock and birds,mostly--but they will bite people. Bats don't chew holes inbuildings.

Best Practices

* If there's a possibility that a person, pet, or livestockhas been exposed to rabies, you are legally required to follow thedirections of the health department, no matter what your customerrequests.

* There's one way in which bats are quite different from manyof the other nuisance species you'll deal with: for most of thoseanimals, removing one nest site won't affect the local population.But bats have so few young that the destruction of one maternal colonymight harm local bat populations. Please try to persuade your customersto accept an approach using nonlethal techniques. They are highlyeffective for bats. There are no toxicants registered by USEPA for batcontrol.

If one bat has accidentally flown into the house, and there havebeen no human or pet exposures:

* Remove any pets from the room, then seal the room. Shut the doorsand place a towel under the door. Close any heat registers. Close allbut one window, which should be screened to let in air. Then turn on adim light. You want just enough light to see--if you make the room toobright, you'll disturb the bat, and it will probably try to hide inthe darkest, most remote place it can find. In a large, cluttered room,searching for a tiny bat is not easy.

* Remain nearby and wait quietly. The bat should calm down in 10-15minutes. The air flow from the window should attract the bat, so itshould land on the screen. When it lands, you can capture it by coveringit with a plastic container and slipping a piece of cardboardunderneath. If there's definitely no concern about possible rabiesexposure, the bat can be taken outside and released. Or you could removethe screen from the window and let the bat fly out on its own. If thebat doesn't calm down quickly enough, leave the room sealed. Returnthe next day, at dusk. The bat should be calm. Repeat the dim light,window capture process.

* Don't worry about the bat flying at you, and don'tchase it or swat at it because that will only cause the bat to panic.When indoors, bats normally fly around the room several times until theyfind an exit. They make steep, banking turns, flying up as they approacha wall, and swooping down as they cross the center of the room.

* Check the windows, especially if there's an air conditionerin the window. Gaps between the upper and lower window, or around astorm window, should be sealed.

Safety tips for contact with bats or their droppings* Wear leather gloves, disposable Tyvek coveralls, goggles, and a proper respirator.* Ventilate the area, if possible.* Don't stir up dust. The dust could contain the spores of the fungus that causes the respiratory disease histoplasmosis; if you disturb the dust, you might inhale the spores. Don't sweep or vacuum, unless using a commercial vacuum intended for this purpose according to the manufacturer's instructions. Instead, thoroughly wet the materials with a household or commercial disinfectant. Wipe up with a damp sponge. Play it safe and don't use a bleach solution, because bat guano contains ammonia. Although the concentration of ammonia in bat droppings isn't as strong as it is in bird droppings, there could be a lot of guano. Do not mix bleach with ammonia because the fumes are toxic.* Spray dead bats and their droppings with disinfectant, then double-bag for disposal.* Be aware of potential pesticide residues in the attic from previous control attempts.* For more information, refer to Chapter Four and the resource list.The timing of bat-proofing(a.k.a. "exclusion") iscritical. Do not separatefemales from their young!* When there are probably young in theroost (mid-May through early August),only limited bat-proofing is acceptable.We'll describe that below.Before and after that period, complete bat-proofing--with the use of a checkvalve tomake sure that any bats accidentally trappedinside can escape--is okay. WCOs in coldclimates will need to alter their activities oncewinter conditions make roof work unsafe.

How to Bat-proof a Building

1. Find the bats' primary entry/exit hole (this is crucial;we'll explain why below). Look around for piles of guano, which mayaccumulate beneath the primary exit hole, or stick to the wall near thehole. Rub marks are typically seen on the wall if there's guanostuck to the wall. Or stage a "bat watch." At dawn or dusk,stand outside the building and watch where the bats enter or leave.

2. Inspect the building thoroughly to find all of the secondaryholes and cracks. There are probably many of them, because bats canwriggle through very small openings. Looks for cracks that are 1/4 inchwide by 11/2 inch long (about the size of a stubby pencil) and holesthat are at least 1/2 inch by 1/2 inch. Inspect the house for signs ofwarped, shrunken, or loose materials, especially at joints. Pay specialattention to roof drip edges, dormer tie-ins, roof corners, ridge caps,vents, and deteriorated walls, roofs, and eaves. In an old house thatdoesn't have soffit vents, you may be able to use light to youradvantage. In the attic, cover the windows, then turn off the lights.Look for light peeping through gaps, cracks, and holes. Then use aflashlight to take a better look at these potential entry points. Modernhouses typically have soffit and eave vents that let in enough light tomake this technique impractical. Some don't even have attics if thebats are roosting behind shutters, remove the shutters or install smallblocks between the shutters and the wall. In either case, you'redone.

3. Seal potential points of entry into the people's livingquarters. Bats can't chew through exclusion materials the wayrodents do, so you can use many different materials to seal holes andcracks, including caulk; expanding foam; Stuf-Fit, a knitted copper meshthat's like steel wool, only it doesn't rust; windowscreening; bird netting; or "flash-band," a self-adhesivealuminum-faced sealant. Some WCOs use the Todol foam gun to efficientlyapply expanding foam, and then finish with a bead of silicone over that.The mesh size of screening or netting shouldn't be larger than 1/4by 1/4 inch or the bats will be able to crawl through it. Althoughmature bats typically can't fit through a half-inch mesh, they canget their heads stuck in it, so the finer mesh is a better choice.

4a. There may be young in the roost (mid-May through early August):Leave the primary exit hole alone. It must remain open to allow thefemales to fly freely in and out of the building so they can hunt andcare for their young in the roost. Seal all of the other entry holes andcracks on the outside of the building. Screen chimney flues and capswith mesh that's 1/4 inch or smaller (check local fire codes). Sealany gaps in the flashing around the chimney, and where the chimney capmeets the chimney. Screen vent pipes with quarter-inch mesh. If the batsare roosting behind shutters, remove the shutters or install smallblocks between the shutters and the wall. That's it for now.You'll finish the bat-proofing after the young have left the roost,usually by mid-August.

4b. No young in the roost (late August through early May*): Locatethe primary exit hole. Seal all of the other holes and cracks. Screenchimney flues and caps with quarter-inch mesh (check local fire codes).Seal any gaps in the flashing around the chimney, and where the chimneycap meets the chimney. Screen vent pipes with quarter-inch mesh. Installa checkvalve (one-way door) over the primary exit hole, following thedirections below. Leave the checkvalve in place for 5-7 days unlessyou're bat-proofing during the winter, when it's safest toleave the one-way door in place until it warms up in April. This way, ifa few stray bats were over-wintering inside the attic, they would beable to leave. Once you're sure that all the bats have left, youcan remove the one-way door and permanently seal the main hole.

* During the winter, WCOs in the North need to assess whether theroof is too slippery to walk on safely. Some will do bat-proofing jobsif there's no snow or ice on the roof, while others taper off suchjobs beginning in December and schedule them again in April.

5. If you did limited bat-proofing to protect young in the roost:To finish the job after the young have left the roost, install acheckvalve over the main hole, following the directions below. Leave thecheckvalve in place for 5-7 days. Once you're sure that all thebats have left, you can remove the one-way door and permanently seal themain hole. Now you're done.

Why the fuss about the main hole and checkvalves? Because theprimary exit hole is the one that matters the most to the bats. If youaccidentally trap bats inside or separate females from their young, thebats will frantically seek a way out of, or back into, the building.They may fly into the people's living spaces; that's a safetyrisk. To avoid this problem, do two things. First, do not separatemothers from their pups. That means you leave the main exit hole openduring the period when bats are rearing their young. At other times ofthe year, place a checkvalve over the main hole and leave it in placefor 5-7 days. This way, if you accidentally trapped a bat inside, thebat has a way out. Once you're sure there are no bats inside, youcan permanently seal the main hole.

How checkvalves work. One-way doors, or checkvalves, allow the batsto leave on their own, but they can't get back inside. You can usea commercial checkvalve or make your own, following this designdeveloped by Dr. Stephen Frantz from the New York State Department ofHealth. Place quarter-inch polypropylene mesh or screening over theentrance holes, forming a long sleeve or tent. The screening shouldcover the hole and extend about 3 feet below the hole. It also shouldstick out about 3-5 inches from the wall, so the bats can crawl beneaththe screen to leave. Secure the screening at the top and sides with ducttape or staples; leave the bottom open.

Bats exit at the bottom, but when they attempt to return, theirsense of smell guides them back to the hole. They land on the mesh nearthe hole--and stay there, sniffing around. They just don't crawldown the mesh. Good thing, because if they did, they would be able toslip back underneath the mesh, crawl up the building, and find theirhole. But don't worry about that. Bats trust their noses.

Trapping Strategies

(Note: Trapping or relocating bats is not legal in all areas of ourregion. Check your state regulations.)

Live traps:

* A resting bat can be captured with a plastic container or abutterfly net (wear leather gloves). If you can reach it, cover the batwith the container, then slip a piece of stiff cardboard between thecontainer and the wall. (Or cut an "x" into the plastic lid,and hold the container so the bat can crawl into it on its own.) Torelease the bat, hold the container on its side on a secure place, suchas against a tree, or on a ledge. Then remove the cardboard.

* One-way doors. See previous description.

* Multiple-capture traps. There are several different types andsizes of multiple-capture traps for bats. The Batrap consists of a tubethat leads the bats through a one-way baffle into a chamber, in whichthey're confined. Like a one-way door, this trap allows the bats toleave the building but keeps them from re-entering at that spot. (Ofcourse, you'd still need to bat-proof to make sure the batscan't enter the building in other places.) Multiple-capture trapsare a bit trickier to use than a one-way door. If you'reinexperienced with this tool, try to learn its proper use from a skilledWCO. For example, it's important to correctly estimate the numberof bats in the roost. You need to match the size of the trap to thenumber of bats that may be captured, because if too many bats areconfined in the trap, they might suffocate. Another danger is that ifbats remain in the trap too long, they might overheat from exposure tothe sun, and die. It's best to release bats in the early morning.

If your customers insist on seeing the bats, a multiple-capturetrap will satisfy that need and allow you to then release or relocatethe bats. (If the customer insists on having the bats killed, this is asafe way to capture them. But do try to talk them out of that.) Onebenefit of using a multiple-capture trap is that it may create a great"teachable moment." You can show the bats to the neighbors andtalk to them about the benefits of having bats around, and debunk myths.You may be able to convince them to bat-proof.

Another option that allows you to prove that you got rid of thebats is to use a one-way door and a video camera. Place the camera nearthe exit holes, set it to record, and leave it running. Then you canshow your customers the tape of the bats leaving the roost.

What to Do with the Bats

* Follow the health department's directions if there'sbeen a potential rabies exposure, or if dealing with a sick bat,one's that grounded, or one that's behaving strangely.

* For healthy bats that can be released, on-site release (coupledwith bat-proofing, of course) is preferred over relocation.

* Relocation is not recommended. Bats will fly great distances toreturn to a favored roost, so if the customer didn't bat-proof, theproblem may happen again. You'd have to travel hundreds of miles tomake sure the bats wouldn't be likely to return to that spot. Ifyou did that, what would happen to the bats during the trip? If somebecame too stressed or overheated, they might be grounded after release.That might increase the disease exposure risk for people, pets, andwildlife in that area. Also, how fair is this to your customer'sneighbors? Sure, they see you capture the bats and take them away, butyou know the chances are good they'll return.

Special Concerns with Very Large Maternity Colonies

* If the site is really good, there could be thousands of bats,perhaps as many as 3,000. Obviously, the bats have been there for a longtime. Can you convince your customer to choose a two-season solution,which might reduce long-term harm to the local bat populations? In thefirst year, install bat boxes in the early summer (a large maternity boxwill house 150-300 brown bats). Let the bats raise their young in thebuilding, and give them time to check out those newly installed boxes.In the late fall, you can begin limited bat-proofing, but don'tclose the main entry hole. In early May of the following year, install acheckvalve over the main hole. Once you are certain all bats are out ofthe structure, you can finish permanent bat-proofing by sealing theprimary entrance hole.

* Create an alternative roost nearby by installing a bat box in theyard (optional, but highly recommended, especially for larger colonies).Why? Many people find that they like having bats nearby, because of allthe insects they eat. Another good reason to install a bat box is thatit may prevent that colony from moving into a nearby building.Installing bat boxes in the northern sections of our region does requiresome careful planning. See A Homeowner's Guide to Northeastern Batsand Bat Problems from Penn State University or contact a bat specialistor Bat Conservation International (www.batcon.org) for details.It's best to locate the bat box where people are less likely toencounter the bats. If this isn't possible, the area immediatelyaround the box can be fenced to prevent people from disturbing thecolony and encountering a bat that's fallen out of the box. Once ayear, remove the guano that's accumulated under the bat box toreduce the chance that it will promote the growth of the mold thatcauses histoplasmosis. Follow appropriate safety instructions for theclean-up (see Chapter Four).

Preferred Killing Methods

* C[O.sub.2] chamber (a smaller chamber is better)

Acceptable Killing Methods

* If there's been no rabies exposure, with care, can usestunning and chest compression. Be careful about contact.

Methods that Don't Work Well

* Ultrasonic devices are not effective.

* Customers may also ask about using mothballs or insect spray.These products are not registered for use in bat control, so that wouldbe illegal. Mothballs can also be dangerous, especially to children. Oneof the active ingredients, napthalene, can be inhaled, eaten, orabsorbed through the skin. That means that if you store clothing withmothballs, you can absorb the chemical the next time you wear theclothes. Napthalene flakes may help to repel a bat colony if the site isconfined and has little or no ventilation, but the recommendedapplication rate is high, and vapors could enter the living spaces andendanger people (the WCO would also need a commercial pesticideapplicator license).

* There are two ways to change an attic that may make it lessattractive to the bats. Neither has been well studied. It's alsopossible that the bats will simply move into another area withoutleaving the building. But here they are: (1) Increase the ventilationand decrease the temperature of the roost area, which makes it lessattractive as an incubator. In attics, install fans, windows, ridge orsoffit vents, or insulation in the walls. (2) If you can't seal allof the holes, install a few floodlights or fluorescent bulbs in theroosting area. The lights should be left on all day and all night forseveral weeks. In later years, turn the lights on during the spring orsummer occasionally, to discourage the bats from recolonizing the site.Leaving the lights on for so long could increase the risk of anelectrical fire. Make sure that the wiring is installed properly andmeets electrical codes.

EASTERN CHIPMUNK (Tamias striatus)

Size

* Body is 5-6 inches long. Tail is 3-4 inches. About 3 ounces.

Signs of Their Presence

* The animals themselves.

* Sounds: Chipmunks use a sharp repetitive chirp to alert others ofdanger. When startled, they'll often respond with a single chirpfollowed by a short burst (1-2 seconds) of chatter.

* Holes that are about 2 inches in diameter. Holes usually gostraight down, with no dirt mound in front.

* Evidence of their feeding: Like squirrels, chipmunks leave gnawednut shells.

* Garden and landscape damage: They dig up and eat flower bulbs andseeds. The digging and tunneling also cause damage.

* Occasionally, chipmunks will damage buildings, but not nearly asoften as other rodents.

Diet

Opportunists, primarily herbivores. Their favorite foods are nuts,seeds, and fruits. Chipmunks eat nuts (acorns, hazel nuts, beechnuts,etc.), seeds (from many ornamental trees, wildflowers, clover, ragweed,and sunflowers, and bird seed), flower bulbs, berries (such asraspberries, strawberries, blackberries, and chokecherries), fruit(watermelon, apples, pears, peaches, cantaloupe, cherries), and wildmushrooms. They will occasionally eat corn, wheat, oats, grass seed,insects, worms, snails, slugs, bird eggs, nestlings, mice, moles, frogs,salamanders, small snakes, and carrion. Although they spend most oftheir time on the ground, they will climb trees to take nuts, fruits,and seeds. Chipmunks cache food in a storage chamber in their burrow.During the breeding season, they must drink up to a quarter of theirbody weight in water each day.

Typical Activity Patterns

Social style: Generally solitary, except for female with dependentyoung. They can be fairly aggressive to each other.

Daily activity: Diurnal.

Hibernator? No. They'll stay in their burrows in a sleepystate for days at a time during the winter. Chipmunks rely on their foodcaches during the winter. They may come out on warm days, often totravel to another food cache.

Migrates? No.

Where Found

Distribution: Across the Eastern U.S., except in its southernportions.

Habitat: They adapt to a variety of habitats, but are usually foundin areas with at least a few mature trees. Common in rural, suburban,and urban areas (yards, gardens, campgrounds, parks, urban lots).Chipmunks often burrow under old stone walls bordering pastures orwoods; under piles of brush, rocks, or garbage; among a tree'sroots, or near buildings. The only places you're not likely to findthem are marshy areas with very dense undergrowth.

Territory and home range: The home range varies from 1/10 to 3acres, but most don't venture more than an acre. Males have largerhome ranges than females. Densities may be as high as 10 chipmunks peracre. They will defend an area of about 50 feet around burrow entrance.

Breeding Habits

Pair bonding style: Polygamous. Females raise young alone.

Breeding dates: They mate twice a year, in April and July.

Birthing period: Two litters, in May and August. Gestation takesabout 31 days.

Litter size: 2-7 young.

Weaning dates: 4-6 weeks.

Amount of time young remain with parents beyond weaning date: Notlong. Young will leave the burrow at about 6-8 weeks old.

Common Nuisance Situations

Time of year: Spring through fall in the northern portions, whilecomplaints may occur year-round in the southern parts of our region.

What are they doing?

* The most serious economic damage is caused by their burrowingunder porches, stairs, patios, or into foundations. They may underminethe structure.

* They gnaw on the tubes used to collect maple syrup.

* Chipmunks raid bird feeders and stashes of pet food.

* They dig in flower beds and vegetable gardens, uprooting plants.They eat flower bulbs, seeds, seedlings.

* Their loud warning chirps in the morning may disturb somepeople's sleep.

* Disease risks: minimal. They are host to a variety of parasites,including fleas, lice, mites, worms, and botflies.

* Best Practices

* Chipmunks rely on food caches to survive the winter, so if youmove them too far away during that time, they'll probably starve todeath. Limit relocation to times when food is readily available.

* Chipmunks raise their young in underground burrows. Theydon't raise their young in buildings (we can't say it wouldnever happen but it's extremely unlikely). Very young chipmunksmight enter a building on their own, leading someone to believethere's a "nest" in there. No. Those chipmunks aremobile.

Remove artificial food sources (bird seed, pet food):

* If anyone is feeding the chipmunks, persuade them to stop.

* Hang bird feeders on a rope between two pulleys. Ideally, feedersshould be 15-30 feet away from the building so any seed that collectsbelow doesn't lead the chipmunks right to the foundation.

* Squirrel-proof bird feeders that use the animal's weight toclose the feeder won't stop chipmunks unless the feeder's setso it will close when a very light weight is applied. Unfortunately, atthat setting, you'll also stop all but the smallest birds fromusing the feeder.

* Keep the area underneath the feeder clean, and feed birds onlyduring the winter months. Feed pets indoors.

Store food, bird seed, and pet food in metal, glass, ceramic, orheavy-duty plastic containers.

Block their travel routes:

* Screen gutter pipes, downspouts, and foundation drain pipes withquarter-inch hardware cloth.

* Chipmunks often gain access to houses through attached garages.Screen the eaves and overhangs of the garage with quarter-inch hardwarecloth.

* Remove ground cover and hedges that are next to the foundation.

* Move firewood and piles of debris, rocks, and brush away from thefoundation.

* Maintain a foot-wide gravel border around the foundationthat's free of vegetation (best), or keep the foundation plantingswell trimmed. Don't stack anything (such as firewood) against thefoundation.

* Interrupt any routes that connect woods to the foundation in onecontinuous line by removing plants or a section of stone wall.

Protect vulnerable crops and ornamental plants:

Plant bulbs within a cylinder of 1-inch poultry wire. Lay the wirein a trench then plant the bulbs in it. Add some dirt, finish wrappingthe wire around the bulbs, then cover with soil.

* Another option for bulbs is to plant them and then lay a piece ofhalf-inch hardware cloth over the soil surface to reduce thechipmunks' ability to dig up the bulbs. The hardware cloth shouldextend at least a foot around the plantings, and be covered with soil.Its mesh must be large enough for the stems to grow through, so you mayneed to experiment with different sizes for different plants.

* Establish a barrier around gardens and fields with wire meshfences. Use quarter-inch galvanized hardware cloth or welded wire. Thefence must be 30 inches high, buried 6-12 inches deep, with a foot-wideL-shaped shelf that sticks out to prevent the chipmunks from burrowingunderneath it.

* If there aren't any mammals nesting in the tree, wraptwo-foot-wide bands of sheet metal around fruit trees at 6-8 feet, toprevent chipmunks from climbing the tree. This will work only if thechipmunks can't leap from another tree or other object onto thistree. Attach the band loosely, so the tree has room to grow. Don'tstaple the band onto the tree because that can prove dangerous ifsomeone needs to cut down the tree.

Prevent entry into building:

* Remove any chipmunks that are using the structure. Exclude themwith a one-way door.

* Close the door! (Use screen doors.)

* Install door sweeps and weather-stripping (in garages, too).

* Seal openings with quarter-inch hardware cloth. Or poke steelwool, wire mesh, or flexible aluminum "gutter guard" into thehole, then caulk, or spray expanding foam (such as Great Stuff ) over itto strengthen the barrier. Focus on holes at ground level, especiallythose in foundations. Chipmunks tend to stay on the ground, so youdon't have to look for holes that are high up, as you would withsquirrels.

* Check vents, especially clothes-dryer vents that are close to theground. If the vent is damaged, replace it with an animal-proof designor screen it with quarter-inch hardware cloth (remember to checkbuilding codes)--except for clothes-dryer vents, which shouldn't bescreened because lint can build up, which is a fire hazard.

* Plug gaps around water, gas, and heating pipes with latex caulk.For large holes around pipes, use galvanized metal pipe chase covers,sheet metal plates, mortar, plaster of Paris, or cement.

Trapping Strategies

Live traps:

* Small cage traps (approx. 16 X 5 X 5 inches) or Sherman traps(approx. 10 X 3 X 3 inches).

* Bait with nuts, peanut butter, sunflower seeds, apple slices.

* Place the trap near the tunnel's entrance or along theirtravel route.

Lethal traps:

* Rat-sized snap traps. There are now models that have built-insafety catches. The bait's under a cover, which must be liftedbefore the trap will fire. This means that an animal that's justinvestigating won't set off the trap. The design also helps ensureproper positioning, which is more humane. Place the trap near entrancesto active burrows. Cover the trap as described below.

* If using a traditional snap trap, place it within a cage trap, abox, a coffee can with both ends cut out, or in PVC pipe, to prevent thecapture of songbirds. If the trap's next to the foundation, youcould lean a board over it.

Other lethal techniques, for WCOs with a commercial pesticideapplicator license:

* There are registered fumigants for chipmunk burrows (phosphinegas, carbon monoxide gas cartridges), and zinc phosphide bait. Thefumigants could pose a fire hazard.

Preferred Killing Methods

* C[O.sub.2] chamber

* Lethal trap

* Shooting, using an air rifle or a .22 caliber rifle with birdshot

* Cervical dislocation

* Stunning and chest compression

Acceptable Killing Methods

* Fumigants and rodenticides

Control Strategies that Don't Work Particularly Well

* There are brands of sunflower seed and suet that are treated witha repellent. The active ingredient is capsaicin, the chemical that makeshot peppers taste hot. Although capsaicin is often effective againstmammals, it doesn't bother chipmunks because they have fur-linedcheek pouches.

EASTERN COYOTE (Canis latrans var.)

Size

30-45 pounds, 4-5 feet long (including tail)

Signs of Their Presence

* Coyotes run with their tails down, while wolves and dogs holdtheir tails straight out. The tails of domestic dogs often curl; coyoteshave straight tails, with a black tip.

* Sounds: May yip, yelp, howl, growl, bark, or woof. Family units(the adult pair and their pups of that year) often yip-howl when theyreunite.

* Tracks: More compact, linear, and forward-directed than thedogs' often splayed, sloppy-looking track (Figures B-1 and B-2).

* Scats: Are twisted, often containing hair or berries (FigureB-3). Often found on rocks, logs, or at trail intersections. Their scathas a mild, musky odor, unlike that of the domestic dog.

* Large carcasses: Coyotes tend to eat the organs first.They'll pick bones clean, unlike dogs. Dogs start at the rear of alarger carcass and eat their way towards the head.

Diet

Opportunist. About 80% of their diet consists of small rodents andrabbits. Coyotes will also eat insects (especially grasshoppers); fruits(berries, watermelon); fish and crayfish; frogs; snakes; bird eggs;larger mammals, such as raccoons, opossums, muskrats, and deer; garbage;carrion; dog or cat food; bird seed; and even doughnuts. They can killhouse cats and dogs. Some individual coyotes will kill livestock,especially chickens, ducks, and lambs.

Typical Activity Patterns

Social style: Most often, will see mated pairs (usually, life-longmates) but coyotes may live in family groups or alone, and may switchfrom one lifestyle to the other. Sometimes, "teenaged" coyotesform a loose group, often much larger than the family group, perhapswith as many as 15 individuals. Such groups may behave more aggressivelytowards people and dogs. This subadult group is probably just atemporary arrangement.

[FIGURE B-1 OMITTED]

[FIGURE B-2 OMITTED]

[FIGURE B-3 OMITTED]

Daily activity: They're usually nocturnal, especially duringhot weather. Coyotes may be active throughout the day when they'rerearing their pups, and in areas where they're left alone bypeople. In suburban areas, coyotes may alter their activity patterns,especially if there are daytime food sources available, such as dog foodthat's left outdoors.

Hibernator? No.

Migrates? No.

Where found

Distribution: Rural and suburban areas throughout the East.

Habitat: They prefer forested areas, shrubby fields, and marshyareas but are highly adaptable and will live in residential areas,including cities.

Territory and home range: Home ranges cover 5-25 square miles.Coyotes will scent-mark their territory. Home ranges may overlap withother coyote groups, especially when they're not raising theirpups.

Breeding Habits

Pair bonding style: Usually monogamous. Coyotes are thought to matefor life. Both parents cooperate in rearing the young, sometimes withthe help of an older pup. Sometimes, a male may mate with severalfemales and they may share the den, raising more than one litter there.

Dens: Coyotes seek sheltered areas for rest or protection fromsevere weather, but use dens to raise their young. Coyotes commonly movetheir pups from one den to another. Most often, coyotes will renovate aburrow that was built and then abandoned by another animal, such as awoodchuck, but they can dig their own dens. Their dens are often foundon rocky ledges or steep or brush-covered slopes. In urban areas, theymay den in storm drains, under sheds, or in holes in parks, golfcourses, and vacant lots. Coyotes may reuse dens from year to year.

Breeding dates: February, continuing into March in southern partsof our region. Females are receptive for only a few days. Gestationtakes about nine weeks.

Litter size: 5-7. The better the food supply, the larger thelitter.

Birthing period: Late April, continuing into May in southern areas.

Weaning dates: Pups begin exploring when they're three weeksold and are usually weaned by six weeks old.

Amount of time young remain with parents beyond weaning date: Pupsare usually driven out of their parents' territory betweenSeptember and March, with peak dispersal in December through January.

Common Nuisance Situations

Time of year: Peaks in late winter (February-March) when thecoyotes are establishing their territories, then again in early springand summer, when they need more food to raise their pups. During thewinter peak (March-April), coyotes aggressively defend the area aroundtheir den site. This is when they often come into conflict with dogs,which they view as a threat to their pups. This is especially true ifthe coyotes are trying to move into the dog's turf (a yard).

Coyotes are opportunistic. In the early spring and summer, coyotesseek easy prey to keep up with the food demands of their pups."Easy prey" may include cats and small dogs in suburban areas,and young livestock (lambs, chicks) in rural areas. When coyotes movebetween natural areas within their home range, they also encounter andmay take domestic pets. There may also be complaints during the fall, asyoung coyotes try to establish their own territories, because that canbe a noisy process. But they're fussing among themselves, and tendnot to wrangle with dogs then.

What are they doing?

* Their yipping and howling may disturb some people.

* Their mere presence may frighten some people. Many peoplearen't used to seeing coyotes and may fear them.

* They can kill housecats or small dogs. Large- and medium-sizeddogs (over 35 pounds) are rarely physically threatened, because thecoyote recognizes that it's outmatched. They'll usually workout the territorial dispute (loudly) without either being hurt. Smalldogs are at risk. The coyote expects to be dominant and will disciplinethe dog until it offers the correct submissive behavior. If the dogdoesn't submit easily, it could be badly injured or killed. Verysmall dogs and cats are seen as easy prey. Free-roaming pets should bebrought inside to keep them safe from cars as well as predators.

* Some coyotes kill livestock, usually free-ranging chickens,ducks, and sheep.

* They'll eat some vegetables and fruits, especially melons.

* Coyotes (and foxes) will chew holes in irrigation pipes in fieldsand orchards.

* Nationwide, a few people have been attacked, mostly in thewestern United States. Usually coyotes don't bother people.However, some coyotes may become bold and aggressive. If you seeindividuals showing these behaviors, take action. The potential doesexist for coyote attacks in the East. People and coyotes can usuallycoexist if the coyotes maintain their natural fear of people (more onthis later).

* Coyotes may travel along an airport's runways, causingdelays and hazards to aviation.

* Disease risks: Distemper, hepatitis, parvovirus, rabies, mange,and tularemia.

Debunking Myths about Coyotes

* Coyotes are often mistaken for "coydogs." A crossbetween a coyote and dog is possible but highly unlikely because ofdifferences in their breeding habits. There are enough coyotes; they caneasily find mates.

* A coyote that's active during the day is not necessarilyrabid. Most likely, it's a healthy animal that's feeding moreoften than usual, because of the demands of its young.

* Although many people fear coyotes and believe they are much moredangerous than domestic dogs, that's not true. More people are hurtby pet dogs each year in the U.S. than by coyotes. However, coyotes arestrong enough to cause serious injuries to people, especially tochildren, and coyotes can kill pets, so they should be respected.

Best Practices

Remove artificial food sources (garbage, compost, pet food, pets):

* If anyone is feeding the coyotes, persuade them to stop.

* "Coyote-proof " garbage cans or dumpsters with atight-fitting lid. Secure garbage cans with heavy-duty straps or bungeecords, or attach them to a post, or keep them out of reach in the garage(close garage doors at night), or place the cans in a covered and securebin.

* Enclose compost piles in a framed box using hardware cloth; in asturdy container, such as a 55-gallon drum; or in a commercial compostcontainer.

* Feed pets indoors. Any food left outdoors should be removed atnight. Bring pet food dishes inside, too.

* Keep the area around bird feeders clean, because coyotes will eatspilled seed. They'll also eat animals that are attracted to thebird feeder, such as birds, mice, and squirrels, so in some cases, youmay want to remove the feeder during the summer months.

* Do not allow pets to roam freely.

Protect children and pets and keep coyotes out of yards:

Some coyotes in suburbia have lost their fear of people. A coyotethat does not fear people should be considered potentially dangerous.

The foods that coyotes find in residential areas (garbage, petfood, pets) are full of human odors, so these coyotes quickly learn toassociate people with food. That's bad. Many people becomefrightened when they see coyotes and run into their homes. That'seven worse because to a coyote, that person has just behaved like prey.Running triggers their attack response.

In short, food smells like people and people behave like prey. Addto the mix people intentionally feeding coyotes, and the potential for acoyote attack becomes very real. Certain changes in coyote behavior seemto indicate a growing risk that coyotes will become aggressive towardpeople (based on studies of coyote-human conflicts in California). Thefollowing warning signs are shown in the order they may happen.

1. During the night, coyotes kill more pets than they did before.

2. During the night, coyotes are seen on streets and in yards moreoften than before.

3. Coyotes are now seen in those areas during the day, especiallyin the early morning and late afternoon.

4. During the day, coyotes chase or kill pets (previously, only anight-time activity).

5. During the day, coyotes kill pets that are on leash (previously,they took only free-roaming pets), or chase joggers and bikers.

6. At midday, coyotes are seen near children's play areas.

Coyotes are generally nocturnal, so increasing daytime activity isoften a sign that those animals have become used to people. Suchboldness should be taken seriously. The California studies suggest thatif the situation is addressed before pet attacks are common, furtherproblems can probably be avoided.

What can you do?

* Act tough. Be very aggressive. Yell, make loud noises, wave yourarms, spray the coyote with water from a hose, and throw sticks orstones near the coyote.

* Teach children that coyotes are not dogs and they are not pets.Watch coyotes from a distance.

* Small children are most vulnerable, so don't leave kids inthe yard unattended.

* Don't let pets roam freely. And don't feed themoutdoors!

* Keep the yard clean and well mowed to remove cover for thecoyotes (trim shrubs at ground level). Remove brush and junk piles thatattract rabbits and other prey that might entice coyotes into the yard.

* Hunting and trapping helps to keep coyotes from losing their fearof people.

* Fences will help a great deal, but coyotes can climb over, burrowunder, or squeeze through fences. So build them right and keep thefences well-maintained.

* Construct net wire fences (using 4-inch mesh) that are 5 1/2 feethigh. To prevent coyotes from digging under the fence, either add barbedwire at ground level or bury the fence 6 inches deep and bend afoot-wide section outward into an L shape. To discourage coyotes fromclimbing over the fence, add an electric wire at the top or create anoverhang of regular wires.

* Electric fences: A fence of 13 strands of high-tensile electricwire is proven to protect sheep from coyotes. Other designs using fewerwires, including electrified netting, may work in some areas.

Combination woven-wire and electric-wire fence: If there's anexisting woven-wire fence, add an electric strand that's placed 6-8inches above ground and 8-10 inches outside the fence, using an offsetbracket. If the coyotes are climbing over the fence, add a top wirethat's also outside the fence.

Invisible fences may be an attractive solution for keeping petswithin an area but they will not keep wildlife out. To protect pets frompredators, switch to a traditional fence design.

Ask neighbors to follow these same steps.

Protect vulnerable livestock

In some cases, you may be able to successfully scare off coyotesand solve the problem. This is most likely to work when you have accessto the coyotes' den. It's reasonably easy to harass a coyote(or fox) enough to convince them to move their pups. These ideashaven't been well studied, but we believe they're worthtrying.

* Act tough, as described previously.

* Use slingshots, an air rifle, or a shotgun loaded with rubberbuckshot to frighten a coyote that's farther away (30 feet). Youdon't have to hit it to scare it off, but if you can, that willmore effectively train the coyote to stay away (this refers to the useof the less lethal projectiles mentioned above).

* Experiment with noisemakers, such as bangers and screamers.

* One scare device, the Critter Gitter, combines a siren andflashing lights. It's triggered by a motion detector. The deviceswitches patterns, so it should be effective longer than a scare devicethat doesn't vary.

* As with many scare tactics, some of the ideas above are laborintensive. You might have to sit and wait a long time before the coyoteshows up. (That may not concern some customers.)

* In some situations, such as when the customer really doesn'twant the coyote killed, you may be able to train the coyote to becomewary of the capture location. Some biologists believe that if a coyoteis trapped and released, it will avoid the area in which it was caught.If the customer's property is large enough, and you don'tthink the coyote will move on to trouble a neighbor, you may want totrap it and release it on site. This is a riskier technique because ifit doesn't work, your job has just become much harder. Coyoteseasily become trap-shy. Consider this a last-resort technique.

Protect vulnerable livestock (poultry, sheep):

* It is much easier to prevent a problem than it is to stop one.

* Close and tightly fasten the doors to poultry houses.

* Fence areas (see previous section). Another fencing option is tocreate a temporary pen for confining livestock at night. Portableelectric fences can be installed quickly and easily. They'reusually made of thin electric wires running through polyethylene twineor ribbon, called "polywire" or "polytape."

Herd livestock into pens and corrals at night and during foggy orrainy days, when coyotes are more likely to hunt. Also, bring livestockinto sheds or paddocks when they're ready to have young. If aparticular pasture seems to be more enticing to predators, move thelivestock into a less vulnerable area.

* Keep pastures open. Clear away brush and weeds that provide coverfor the coyotes. Remove brush and junk piles that attract rabbits andother prey that might entice coyotes into the pasture.

* Sheep or goats kept near cattle are less likely to be preyed onby coyotes.

* Keep herds and flocks healthy. Coyotes often prey on smaller,weaker lambs and calves.

* If possible, change to a fall lambing and calving season. Thisdoesn't coincide with the period when coyotes are raising theirpups (late spring through September), which is when they are most likelyto prey on young livestock.

* Concentrate the lambing and calving period (using synchronized orgroup breeding) to reduce the amount of time that young, vulnerableanimals are present in the herd or flock.

* Well-trained guard dogs (usually Great Pyrenees, Komondor,Anatolian Shepherd, or Akbash breeds) and donkeys and llamas helpprevent predation on sheep. This technique works even better if you keepthe livestock and guard animals within proper fences.

* Add lights to corrals. Strobe lights may work best to discouragecoyotes.

* Propane exploders and sirens may give temporary relief.

* The USDA's National Wildlife Research Center developed adevice for protecting sheep in fenced pastures. The "ElectronicGuard" combines a strobe light and siren. (Or try the CritterGitter, described in the scare tactics section.)

* Parking a car or truck in a pasture may frighten away coyotes fora short time. If the coyotes are hunting during the day, put a dummy inthe car.

* Remove and properly dispose of livestock carcasses. Do not allowcoyotes to develop a taste for livestock, live or dead! Carrion willattract coyotes to an area.

* Contact your regional wildlife agency staff or USDAAPHIS-Wildlife Services for more information.

Trapping Strategies

The Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies has published BestManagement Practices: Trapping Coyotes in the Eastern United States(see: http://www. fishwildlife.org/Furbearer/Aug%202006%20BMPs/EasternCoyote_rev1.pdf ).

* It takes experience and skill to trap coyotes effectively.Don't wing it! Get help before you start. Coyotes easily becometrap-shy, so a botched trapping attempt will leave the customer with aworse problem. There are excellent courses, videos, and books thatexplain how to trap coyotes.

* Good trap locations: Look for coyote tracks and scat! Favoritespots include high hills; near isolated land features or isolated balesof hay (which they may use as scent posts); trail and stream crossings;fences; roads through pastures; deer trails; dry or shallow creek beds;near the border of fields, or tree groves, or pond dams; and near brushpiles.

* Set traps to one side of the trail, not directly in the trail.Look for a place where coyotes would naturally stop, such as near agate, on a hilltop, or where the cover changes.

* Place traps in an open flat area upwind of the path, to carry thescent of the bait (or lure, or both) across the coyote's normaltrail. Bury foothold traps.

* In the fall and winter, a dirt-hole set may work best. Flat setsand urine post sets are generally more effective during the summer.

* The trap should be clean and not smell of people. Minimize humanscent around the trap, too. Wear clean gloves and rubber footwear.

* Traps should be dyed and waxed, or cold-dipped in a commercialproduct.

* Coyote urine is a good lure for year-round use.

* Use baits and lures that have mild scents during the warmermonths, because a strong-smelling bait or lure might prompt the coyoteto roll on the trap. The trap might fire without capturing the coyote,which might become trap-shy as a result.

* Coyotes are very sensitive to irregularities in the ground, somake sure that foothold traps are firmly packed into the soil so theydon't move. Otherwise, the coyote will probably realize the trap isthere and avoid it.

* Block the back of the trap with sticks to guide the animal to thetrap.

* Put lure on a stick to create an attractive scent post.

* Attach survey tape to a branch or bush using a clothespin to markthe spot where you set your lure or trap.

* Coyotes are powerful. Use strong, well-anchored, andwell-balanced traps. But don't overpower your traps, because thatcould cause injuries.

* Options for anchoring traps: two stakes inserted crosswise, ordisposable earth anchors with aircraft cable. "In-line" shocksprings on the anchors will help prevent the coyote from lunging andpulling out of the trap.

* Many trap manufacturers and suppliers now offer versions of trapswith the modifications suggested below, or will modify their models uponrequest. Or you may choose to modify your own traps.

* Nuisance coyotes should not be relocated, especially if theproblem concerned a threat to human safety. They might cause a problemin the new location. Once caught, the coyote is extremely likely to betrap-shy.

* If using a cable restraint, set the maximum loop size to 10-12inches. The cable should be 10-12 inches above the ground. The cablerestraint must be placed in an area where it cannot become tangled inplants, rocks, fences, logs, or equipment. Support and stabilize thecable restraint with 9-gauge wire and anchor it securely with earthanchors or a double-staked 30-inch metal rod.

Live traps that meet the BMP performance criteria:

* #1 3/4 coilspring trap: standard model; one with offset,laminated jaws; or one with wider, offset jaws

* #2 coilspring: standard model; or a 4-coiled model with offset,laminated jaws

* #3 coilspring: padded coilspring, 4 coils; or an offset doublelaminated coilspring, 4-coils

Lethal techniques:

* Hunting coyotes with a pack of trained dogs (usually largerbreeds, such as greyhounds and some of the larger fox hounds). This is amore specialized and costly technique.

* Shooting, with a shotgun or accurate rifle, depending onconditions. May use light at night. The shooter(s) will need effectivecover (camouflage, blinds) and must stay as still and quiet as possible.

Two approaches:

1. If the coyote's keeping to a regular schedule, sit andwait.

2. Attract the coyote within shooting range using a predator call(howls or distress calls). Call when you're downwind of the coyote.

* Howls, barks, and yips: you can try to mimic these soundsyourself, but they're harder to master than distress calls. Thereare recordings and commercial mouth-blown devices that will do thetrick. Once you know what they mean, you may be able to use these sounds(perhaps in combination with a distress call) to locate the coyote orits den, or to draw a coyote into shooting range.

* Distress calls (usually of prey, but some people use distresscalls of competing predators or coyote pups): Most people use recordingsor commercial mouth-blown devices. Coyotes respond because they hear aninjured animal. They're coming in to eat it (coyotes are nearlyalways hungry).

Preferred Killing Methods

* Shooting, using a shotgun with BB-sized shot or larger, or a .22caliber rifle, or a center fire rifle (target the head, if no rabiestesting is required, or the heart/lungs)

* Lethal injection of barbiturate, if possible

Acceptable Killing Methods

* Stunning and C[O.sub.2] chamber (You can probably fit a coyoteinto a cooler-sized chamber. The animal must be restrained orunconscious.)

* Stunning and shooting

* Stunning and exsanguination (take care to reduce your exposure tobody fluids)

Control Strategies that Don't Work Particularly Well

* Bells placed on sheep, and radios blaring in pastures, don'twork well.

* Many repellents have been tested to keep coyotes from preying onsheep and cattle, but none have worked well. Coyotes rely on visual cueswhen hunting. Taste and smell are not as important, so even when therepellent offended the coyotes, it didn't keep them from killingthe animals--just from eating what they'd killed.

* An interesting idea that hasn't panned out yet was to trainthe coyotes to avoid eating sheep by offering a bad-tasting bait thatwould sicken, but not kill, the coyote. The theory was that coyotes areterritorial, so if you could train "your" coyote thatlivestock taste bad, it wouldn't kill any more livestock and wouldalso keep other coyotes away. Inconclusive results.

For More Information

Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies' publication: BestManagement Practices: Trapping Coyotes in the Eastern United States,http://www.fishwildlife.org/ Furbearer/Aug%202006%20BMPs/EasternCoyote_rev1.pdf

Baker, R. O., and Timm, R. M. 1998. Management of conflicts betweenurban coyotes and humans in Southern California, pages 299-312 inProceedings, 18th Vertebrate Pest Conference (R. O. Baker and A. C.Crab, eds.). U. California at Davis.

Timm, R. M., Baker R. O., Bennett J. R., and Coolahan, C. C. 2004.Coyote Attacks: An Increasing Suburban Problem, pages 47-57 inProceedings, 21st Vertebrate Pest Conference (R. A. Timm and W. P.Gorenzel, eds.). U. California at Davis.

FOXES

Species' Names

* Red fox, Vulpes vulpes

* Gray fox, Urocyon cinereoargenteus

Size

10-15 pounds. Body is 20-25 inches long. Gray fox is smaller.

Signs of Their Presence

* Sounds: May scream, yap, growl, or bark.

* Scats: Twisted, often contain hair or berries, deposited on rocksor logs (Figures B-4 and B-5).

* Odor: Their scent markings have distinctive odors. Red fox urinesmells skunk-like, while gray fox urine smells musky.

* Tracks (Figures B-6, B-7, B-8, and B-9).

Diet

Opportunist. Foxes eat mostly mice, voles, bird eggs, rabbits,insects, and native fruits such as blueberries, blackberries,chokecherries, grapes, and black cherries. They'll also eatpoultry, lambs, piglets, carrion, and cats. Both species will bury foodfor later use, especially around the den site, when they're raisingtheir pups.

[FIGURE B-4 OMITTED]

[FIGURE B-5 OMITTED]

[FIGURE B-6 OMITTED]

[FIGURE B-7 OMITTED]

Typical Activity Patterns

Social style: Solitary except during the breeding season, whenmated pairs and their young live as a family unit.

Daily activity: Both day and night, but generally most active atdawn and dusk.

Hibernator? No.

Migrates? No.

Where Found

Distribution: In rural and suburban areas and parks throughout theEast.

Habitat: The red fox prefers woodland edges along open fields,meadows, and lawns, while the gray fox tends more toward forested andbrushy areas. Typical den sites: red foxes may dig their own den or usean abandoned woodchuck burrow. Gray foxes often den in wood or brushpiles, rocky outcrops, or hollow trees. Foxes will often reuse thesedens from year to year.

[FIGURE B-8 OMITTED]

[FIGURE B-9 OMITTED]

Territory and home range: Varies. Sometimes the red fox isaggressively territorial; other times it has overlapping home ranges.Perhaps this varies according to season, breeding cycle, habitat, orpopulation density.

Breeding Habits

Pair bonding style: Polygamous and promiscuous. Among red foxes,males rarely help females raise the young, but male gray foxes may helpraise the pups. Sometimes, females will raise their young alone, andsometimes one male and several females den together, with more than onefemale raising young. Both species will cache food around the den forthe pups.

Breeding dates: December through March, peaking in late January.Gestation takes about 52 days.

Litter size: Red fox: 4-9. Gray fox: 3-7. Most average 4-6 pups.

Birthing period: March through April. Most red fox pups are born inmid-March, with the gray foxes following a few weeks later.

Weaning dates: 2-3 months.

Amount of time young remain with parents beyond weaning date: Mostdisperse in the fall, between September and December.

Common Nuisance Situations

Time of year: Any time of year.

What are they doing?

* Their mere presence may frighten some people.

* Getting into the chicken (or turkey, duck, or goose) coop oryard. Foxes may take piglets, lambs, and small pets.

* In the spring, they may den underneath a porch or in a yard fora while, while they're raising their pups. Foxes generally use morethan one den to raise their pups and may move them as many as two tofour times, so this may be a short-term situation. They'll usuallyleave by the end of June at the latest. These dens aren't usedduring other seasons.

* Foxes (and coyotes) will chew holes in irrigation pipes in fieldsand orchards.

* Disease risks: Rabies, distemper. Red foxes, but not gray, getmange.

Debunking Myths about Foxes

* Foxes are much smaller than many people think. They're aboutthe weight of a house cat (10-15 pounds).

* They rarely attack dogs or people (unless the fox is rabid).These are relatively small predators that usually hunt mice.

* Pups that are alone during the day have not necessarily beenabandoned. Their parents are probably out hunting for food for them.(This is also true of coyotes.)

* A fox that's active during the day is not necessarily rabid.Most likely, it's a healthy animal that's feeding more oftenthan usual, because of the demands of its young.

Best Practices

Do nothing: In some cases, the mere presence of a fox will beperceived as a nuisance. As mentioned above, foxes will sometimes denfor a short time under a porch. They will leave on their own, usually bythe end of June. Can you educate your customers and convince them totolerate the situation? If you can't persuade your customers towait until July, then nonlethal controls will likely work (e.g.,harassment to scare the foxes away from the den site).

Scare them away: This is most likely to work when you have accessto their den. It's easy to harass red foxes enough to convince themto move their pups (this also works with gray foxes and coyotes,although not as easily).

* Make noise near their den site. Run motors, shout, increase youractivity in that area.

* Use slingshots or a shotgun loaded with rubber buckshot tofrighten a fox that's farther away (45 feet). You don't haveto hit it to scare it off, but if you can, that will more effectivelytrain the fox to stay away (this refers to the use of the less lethalprojectiles mentioned above).

* Experiment with noisemakers, such as bangers and screamers. Youmay be able to use predator calls (such as the Coyote Howler) tofrighten foxes away from their dens.

* One scare device, the Critter Gitter, combines a siren andflashing lights. It's triggered by a motion detector. The deviceswitches patterns, so it should be effective longer than a scare devicethat doesn't vary.

* WCOs with a commercial pesticide applicator license: Use arepellent containing coyote urine around the den site. Then cause adisturbance: cut back the brush, flatten the dirt mound in front of theden.

Remove artificial food sources (garbage, compost, pet food):

* If anyone is feeding the foxes, persuade them to stop.

* "Fox-proof " garbage cans or dumpsters with atight-fitting lid. Secure garbage cans with heavy-duty straps or bungeecords, or attach them to a post, or keep them out of reach in the garage(close garage doors at night), or place the cans in a covered and lockedbin.

* Enclose compost piles in a framed box using hardware cloth orwelded wire; in a sturdy container, such as a 55-gallon drum; or in acommercial compost container.

* Feed pets indoors. Any food left outdoors should be removed atnight. Bring pet food dishes inside, too.

* Remove and properly dispose of livestock carcasses. Keep foxesout of yards, prevent them from denning under porches and decks, andprotect vulnerable livestock:

* Close and tightly fasten the doors to poultry houses.

* Bring livestock into sheds or paddocks when they're ready tohave their young.

* Fences will help a great deal, but foxes will try to climb over,burrow under, or squeeze through fences. So build them right and keepthe fences well maintained. You can fence the whole yard, or just thearea around the vulnerable spot.

* Use a 2-inch net-wire fence, hardware cloth, welded wire, orgalvanized sheet metal. (You may wish to recommend the use of smallermesh because this will also prevent other animals, such as skunks andwoodchucks, from gaining access.) Create a "rat wall." Attachthe hardware cloth to the bottom of the deck. Then bury the bottom ofyour wall 6-12 inches, with a foot-wide shelf that sticks out, toprevent animals from digging underneath the barrier (this will look likethe letter L).

* Three-wire electric fences, with wires spaced at 6, 12, and 18inches, can repel foxes.

* Combination woven-wire and electric wire fence: If there'san existing woven-wire fence, add an electric strand that's placed6-8 inches above ground and 8-10 inches outside the fence, using anoffset bracket. If the foxes are climbing over the fence, add a top wirethat's also outside the fence.

* Invisible fences may be an attractive solution for keeping petswithin an area but they will not keep wildlife out. To protect pets frompredators, switch to a traditional fence design.

* If young are present, remove the entire family before blockingthe entrance to their den:

* See fur or feathers outside the den during the early summer? Thatshows the adult fox is bringing food to young pups. Can you wait it out?They'll leave on their own once their pups are old enough (usually12-14 weeks old).

* Cage traps may be effective in capturing young foxes. Place thetrap near the den's entrance.

* A device called a "mechanical wire ferret" may help youchase the young out of the den. It's a long piece of steel wirethat has a spring and wooden plug on one end, and a handle on the other.Twist the spring through the den to flush out the foxes so you cancapture them directly using a dip net, net bag, or cage trap as theyleave the den. The mechanical wire ferret can become entangled in ayoung fox's fur, so use it carefully.

* If young are separated from their parents, you can place the pupin a different litter. As long as that female is nursing, she'llprobably adopt the pup.

Trapping Strategies

Live capture:

Cage traps

* You may be able to use a cage trap to capture a young red fox inan urban area, or to remove young from a den, but don't expect tocatch adult red foxes in cage traps.

Foothold traps

* Trapping foxes requires great skill. The amateur is likely tosimply educate the fox, thus making it difficult for even experiencedtrappers to succeed later.

* Foxes are very sensitive to irregularities in the ground, so makesure that foothold traps are firmly packed into the soil so theydon't move. Otherwise, the fox will probably realize the trap isthere and avoid it.

* Block the back of the trap with sticks to guide the animal to thetrap.

* Lure smeared on a stick creates an attractive scent post.

* Attach survey tape to a branch or bush using a clothespin to markthe spot where you set your lure or trap.

* Set foothold traps along trails or at entrances to fields.

* In the fall and winter, a dirt-hole set may work best. Flat setsand urine post sets are generally more effective during the summer.

* Foothold traps should be dyed and waxed, or cold-dipped in acommercial product.

* For adult foxes, use foothold traps, #1 1/2 or #1 3/4 coilspring.For pups, use a #1 coilspring. Offset, padded, or laminated jaws mayreduce injuries.

Cable restraints

* Set the maximum loop size to 6-8 inches. The cable should be 6-8inches above the ground. The cable restraint must be placed in an areawhere it cannot become tangled in plants, rocks, fences, logs, orequipment. Support and stabilize the cable restraint with 9-gauge wireand anchor it securely with earth anchors or double-staked 30-inch metalrod.

Note: Cable restraints are not legal in all states, so check yourlocal regulations.

Preferred Killing Methods

* C[O.sub.2] chamber (if caught in a cage trap, simply place thetrap in the chamber; if caught directly, using a catchpole, for example,stun the fox, then transfer it into the chamber)

* Shooting, using a shotgun with #6 shot or larger, or a .22caliber rifle (target the head if no rabies testing is needed, or theheart/lungs). Especially with gray foxes, may be able to successfullycall the fox into the area with a predator call.

* Lethal injection of barbiturate, if possible

Acceptable Killing Methods

* Stunning and chest compression (rabies risk: handle themcarefully)

Control Strategies that Don't Work Particularly Well

* Noisemakers, such as propane cannons, radios, and taperecordings, may convince the foxes to move to a new den, but thesetechniques aren't generally effective in preventing livestockdepredation.

* The same holds true for flashing lights such as strobe lights orbeacons. They're most effective in an enclosure or small area, whenused intermittently with other techniques.

MICE

Species' Names

* House mouse, Mus musculus (an exotic species)

* Deer mouse, Peromyscus maniculatus (native)

* White-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus (native)

Size

Under one ounce. Body is 2-3 1/2 inches long, excluding the 3- to4-inch-long tail. The best way to tell these mice apart is to capturethem. The house mouse has grayish brown fur and a nearly naked tail.Both wild mice are two-toned, with reddish-brown backs and whitebellies. They have furry tails (also two-toned).

Signs of Their Presence

* Sounds: Squeaking, scuttling, or gnawing inside the walls,ceilings, or between floors of buildings.

* Scat: 1/8- 1/4 inches long, slender. Found in kitchen cabinets,drawers, and corners; on counters, under sinks, and near food. Urinestains on the woodwork can be seen with an ultraviolet light. If younotice a musty odor, the urine was from a house mouse.

* Trails: Mice use the same route over and over. Eventually, afaint, dark "trail" of body oil and dirt may be noticeable onthe baseboards. Look as well for smooth, worn paths in insulation. Theirburrow holes, often seen in baseboards, corners, walls, and foundations,are usually about an inch in diameter. They can fit through a dime-sizedhole.

* Nests: A loosely woven ball of shredded fibers, such as clothingor paper, about 5 inches in diameter. Deer and white-footed mice linetheir nests with fur, feathers, cloth, and other fine materials.Droppings, seeds, and pet food are often found near the nest. Ifpossible, mice will choose to nest near food.

* Damage to household goods and buildings: tooth marks on packagedgoods, electric cables, baseboards, door and window casings, andcabinets. (Their teeth grow constantly, so they gnaw to keep them worndown.) Piles of wood chips or shavings.

Diet

Mice are primarily herbivorous, although during the summer they mayeat mostly insects. The house mouse will sample everything in yourlarder, including your lard--and perfumed bar soap, too. They preferseeds, grains, and grain products, like bread, but are happy withcheese, peanut butter, bird seed, potatoes, and pet food. They'lleat chocolate, bacon, and other foods that are high in sugar, protein,or fat. Deer and white-footed mice are mostly seedeaters. They'remore likely to stash acorns, the scales of pine and spruce cones, andbeech nuts between wall studs.

Typical Activity Patterns

Social style: House mice are generally solitary, except for femaleswith young. Mated pairs of deer and white-footed mice usually staytogether during the breeding season.

Daily activity: Nocturnal, with peaks at dawn and dusk. Daytimeactivity is seen.

Hibernator? No, but mice living outdoors may den for a few days invery cold weather.

Migrates? No.

Where Found

Distribution: Throughout the East.

Habitat: The house mouse prefers a house, cabin, garage, barn,attic, shed, office, warehouse, or similar locale. Deer and white-footedmice prefer forested or brushy areas. White-footed mice spend a lot oftime in trees, and will take over abandoned bird or squirrel nests.Other preferred nest sites include small pre-existing burrows, brushpiles, the knotholes of trees, bird boxes, attics, and spaces underrocks or logs.

Territory and home range: House mice tend to stay close to theirfood, ranging up to 10-30 feet in diameter. In contrast, the wild micetend to forage outside, covering from 1/3 to 4 acres, but will nestindoors when shelter is available. Deer and white-footed mice areprobably territorial around their nests, and avoid contact with eachother within their home ranges, although they nest together in familygroups during the winter. They may establish a dominance hierarchy.Males' home ranges may overlap; females' apparentlydon't. Females in mixed habitats tend to have smaller butbetter-quality home ranges, and those females can be larger than males.

Breeding Habits

Pair bonding style: Mice are polygamous. Females raise the youngalone.

Breeding dates: Indoor residents may breed year-round, but wildmice tend to breed in the spring and fall. They may have 4-10 littersper year. Gestation takes about 23 days. Females may breed again withina day or two of giving birth. Mice are sexually mature at 6-10 weeksold.

Litter size: 3-5. May see as few as 2, or as many as 8. A femalehouse mouse can produce over 40 young in a year.

Weaning dates: Between 2-4 weeks of age.

Amount of time young remain with parents beyond weaning date: Notlong!

Common Nuisance Situations Time of year: Any time of year.

What are they doing?

* Mice can damage buildings and household goods as they seek foodand nest sites. They'll gnaw through or foul woodwork, aluminumsiding, plasterboard (Sheetrock), insulation, plastic food containers(including garbage cans), papers, packaged goods, clothing, mattresses,furniture, and even lead or copper pipes. Indoors, they nest in walls,kitchen cabinets, attics, basements, garages, sheds, barns, and underappliances. Outdoors, they'll nest in thick vegetation, wood orrock piles, and junk.

* Their nests might block a vent, causing a fire hazard.

* They also chew on wires, which in addition to creating a firehazard could also short-circuit electrical systems, causing failures ofalarm systems or refrigeration.

* Mice eat many human foods but prefer seeds and cereal grains. Inbarns and outbuildings, they get into stored grains, corn, feeds, andseeds. They'll raid bird feeders and pet dishes. They damage muchmore than they eat because they tend to nibble and discard foods.

* Scurry about at night. The noise may drive you and your pets todistraction.

* May dig up recently planted seeds in home gardens, agriculturalfields, and areas that were supposed to be reforested.

* They contaminate stored foods, especially grains. Mice ruin agood portion of the world's food supply.

* Foul items stored in warehouses, museums, libraries, and othersites.

* Disease risks--among the possibilities:

** for all three species: Lyme disease, salmonellosis (foodpoisoning), leptospirosis (Weil's disease), typhus, rat bite fever,ringworm, tapeworms

** for deer and white-footed mice: hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

** for house mouse: lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM) virus,rickettsial pox

Best Practices

The best way to deal with a mouse infestation is to clean up, getrid of the mice, and keep them from finding a way back in. Keep threewords in mind: sanitation, eviction, exile.

Safety tips for contact withmice, their droppings,urine, or nest materials* Wear rubber gloves and a properrespirator.* Ventilate the area, if possible.* Don't stir up dust by vacuuming orsweeping. The dust could contain hantaviruses,LCM virus, or other airbornedisease organisms.* Instead, thoroughly wet the materialswith a 10% bleach solution (one partbleach in nine parts water) or householddisinfectant. Wipe up with a dampsponge.* Spray dead mice and their nests with disinfectant,then double-bag for disposal.* Disinfect toys, silverware, or other itemsthat may have been fouled. Throwaway any contaminated foods, drinks,napkins, paper plates, or cups.* For more information, refer to ChapterFour and the resource list.

Remove artificial food sources (garbage, compost, bird seed, petfood):

* Store food, bird seed, pet food, garbage, compost, andrecyclables in metal, glass, or ceramic containers.

* Promptly clean up spills and crumbs.

* Feed pets at scheduled times, and then put unfinished food in therefrigerator. (Relax--with a proper trapping and exclusion program, youwon't have to do this for too long.)

* Keep the area around bird feeders clean, especially of spillsunderneath the feeder. Feed birds only during the winter months.

* Clean garbage cans, dumpsters, and garbage chutes regularly.Screen dumpster drainage holes with hardware cloth.

* Elevate compost heaps or enclose with quarter-inch hardware clothor welded-wire mesh.

Remove their nesting sites:

* Keep stored items off the floor and away from walls. In awarehouse, paint a 12-inch white band on the floor all the way aroundthe room to make inspections easier, and to remind people to keep itemsaway from the walls.

* Reduce clutter and remove cardboard boxes.

* Move firewood, debris piles, and garbage cans away from thehouse.

* Maintain a foot-wide gravel border around the foundationthat's free of vegetation (best), or keep the foundation plantingswell trimmed. Don't stack anything (such as firewood) against thefoundation.

Prevent entry into building:

* Close the door! (Use screen doors.)

* Install door sweeps and weather-stripping (in garages, too).

* Repair holes in walls and screens. Poke steel wool, wire mesh, orflexible aluminum "gutter guard" into holes and then caulk, orspray expanding foam (such as Great Stuff ) over it to strengthen thebarrier.

* Use latex caulk to plug gaps around water, gas, and heatingpipes, heat registers, air ducts, electrical chases, and false ceilings.

* For large holes around pipes, use galvanized metal pipe chasecovers, sheet metal plates, mortar, plaster of Paris, or cement.

* Seal openings beneath and behind sinks, stoves, and dishwasherswith latex caulk.

* Check vents (sewer, stove, clothes-dryers, roof, ridge-line,soffit, furnace ducts, and attic fans).

If the vent is damaged, replace it with an animal-proof design, orscreen it with quarter-inch hardware cloth. End caps on ridge vents mayloosen, providing access to the attic. Soffit vents are best protectedwith metal louvers.

White-footed and deer mice are excellent climbers. They will oftenenter buildings through holes in the roof, even on two- or three-storybuildings. Inspect thoroughly.

Protect valuable trees and shrubs:

* Commercial tree wrap or hardware cloth will protect young trees.

* Plant seedlings instead of seed.

Trapping Strategies

The house mouse is an exotic species, so please do not release anyinto the wild (Chapter Two explains why). Deer and white-footed mice,which are native in the East, can be live-trapped and released. If theirentry points have been sealed they shouldn't be able to get backinside the building.

* To increase your success, trap intensively for several days. Moreis better.

* Place the traps in their runways, in corners, near food sources,nests, or holes--wherever the mice are most active. You may be able tolift some ceiling tiles to place traps in a dropped ceiling. Set trapsat night, when mice are most active. Check the traps in the morning.

Live traps:

* Various models of small cage and box traps, such as Shermantraps.

* Multiple-capture traps, which hold the mice in a compartment.

* Set live traps parallel to the wall.

Lethal traps:

* The familiar mouse trap is a type of body-gripping trap called a"snap trap." There are many designs.

* The Quick Kill Mouse Trap made by Victor has a lid over the baitcup (Figure B-10). Only animals that are motivated to seek the bait willlift that lid--and that's what fires the trap (the "lid"is actually the trigger). This means that an animal can accidentallystep on the lid without setting off the trap. There's anotheradvantage to this design. The bait cup is located to position the mousein the perfect strike position. So this trap is both more selective andmore effective than the traditional mouse trap. It also has a safetycatch and will not fire if it's picked up.

* Other snap traps have an expanded "trigger" (properlycalled the "pan") or a clothespin design (Figure B-11). Thesefeatures make the traps easier to set than traditional mouse traps.

* Place traps right against the wall, every 5-6 feet.

* Set snap traps in pairs. This is much more effective. Two setswork well:

** Side-by-side, perpendicular to the wall, with the triggersnapping towards the wall

** Parallel to the wall, with the trigger snapping to the outside(not into the center)

* Traps may be attached to rafters with nails, or to pipes withwire or Velcro strips.

* Bait with peanut butter, bacon, dried fruit, nutmeat, chocolatecandy. Or tie a cotton ball to the trigger (it's enticing nestingmaterial).

* To protect young children, place lethal traps inside a cage with1-inch mesh, or in a coffee can with both ends cut out, or in PVC pipe.(Make sure the trap will still fire.) Wildlife rehabilitators mayappreciate donations of mice, which are used to feed some snakes, birdsof prey, and other animals. If you're going to do this, don'tspray the mice with disinfectant and be sure that no poisons(rodenticides, poisonous tracking powder) have been used in the buildingduring previous control efforts. You can double-bag the mice and freezethem.

The use of glue boards, which the authors do not consider a bestpractice, may be warranted in the case of a severe infestation. A glueboard is a layer of long-lasting adhesive spread over a surface, usuallycardboard or plastic. The mice get stuck in the adhesive (glue boardsare used to capture mice, rats, and snakes). Although some call the glueboard a live trap, it's not often used that way. In fact, somebiologists believe that you cannot remove the animal from the trapunharmed because the oil that is used to loosen the glue may harm theanimal. In practice, mice are frequently left to die on glue boards.Snap traps are often as effective as glue boards and are more humane,although setting them does take more effort. If using glue boards, setthem in protected areas, such as within a dropped ceiling. Check themfrequently (at least every 12 hours) and kill any captured mice bystunning them. Do not leave dead mice on glue boards because thecarcasses will stink and likely attract other pests.

[FIGURE B-10 OMITTED]

[FIGURE B-11 OMITTED]

Other lethal techniques, for WCOs with a commercial pesticideapplicator license:

* Toxicants (in various forms, such as baits, fumigants, andtracking powder) can be effective and may be warranted in somesituations. Rodenticides can be hazardous to children, pets, and animalsthat eat the poisoned mice. The mice may die in walls and stink, whilealso providing a breeding place for flies. Trapping is often a bettersolution.

* There's a fair amount to consider when using rodenticides.You'll learn the details during your pesticide applicator training.

Preferred Killing Methods

* Lethal trap

* Cervical dislocation

* Stunning, and if necessary, chest compression

* Carbon dioxide chamber (use a small chamber)

Acceptable Killing Methods

* Pesticides (for those with proper license)

Control Strategies that Don't Work Well

* Ultrasonic devices don't work against mice. Loud or unusualnoises will frighten them and may drive them off for a short time.

* Electromagnetic devices don't work, either.

* Mothballs and ammonia don't do much, either, and are notEPA-approved for mouse control.

* Cats may kill some mice, but a single female house mouse can bearup to 40 young in a year. The mice also travel in places that catscan't reach, so don't expect success.

* Glue boards will capture mice but they can cause other pestinfestations if used improperly. There are more humane options that areeffective.